Proceedings, of the Worcester Society of Entiquity, Vol. 21 (Classic Reprint)

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Hart-Davis, Adam, ed. (2012). History: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: DK. ISBN 978-0-7566-7609-4.

Ancient Andean civilisation began with the rise of organized fishing communities from 3500 BC onwards. Along with a sophisticated maritime society came the construction of large monuments, which likely existed as community centers. [130] The peoples of this area grew beans, cotton, peanuts, and sweet potatoes, fished in the ocean, and by about 2000 BC had added the potato to their crops. The Chavin culture, based around the Chavin cult, emerged around 1000 BC and led to large temples and artworks as well as sophisticated textiles. Gold, silver, and copper were worked for jewelry and occasionally for small copper tools. [131] The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea Available from: https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html The term is no longer much used in formal academic discussion, because of this imprecision. However, a recent attempt to standardise this and other terms has been carried out. [5] Most, but not all, antiquities have been recovered by archaeology. There is little or no overlap with antiques, which covers objects, not generally discovered as a result of archaeology, at most about three hundred years old, and usually far less. The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449BC), concluded by the Peace of Callias gave way not only to the liberation of Greece, Macedon, Thrace, and Ionia from Persian rule, but also resulted in giving the dominant position of Athens in the Delian League, which led to conflict with Sparta and the Peloponnesian League, resulting in the Peloponnesian War (431–404BC), ending in a Spartan victory.

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Robert Weiss notes (1969:8) that Ionic columns from the Baths of Caracalla were used in Innocent II's rebuilding of Santa Maria in Trastevere, 1139 The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great, who first became king of the Persians, then conquered the Medes, Lydia, and Babylon by 539 BC. The empire built on earlier Mesopotamian systems of government to govern their large empire. By building roads, they improved both the ability to send governmental instructions throughout their lands as well as improving the ability of their military forces to be deployed rapidly. Increased trade and upgraded farming techniques increased wealth, but also exacerbated inequalities between social classes. The empire's location at the centre of trading networks spread its intellectual and philosophical ideas throughout a wide area, and its religion, while not itself spreading far, had an impact on later religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. [42] Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, while a later emperor, Darius the Great, expanded the empire to the Indus River, creating the largest empire in the world to that date. [43] But Darius and his son Xerxes I failed to expand into Greece, with expeditions in 490 and 480 BC eventually failing. [44] The Achaemenid dynasty and empire fell to Alexander the Great by 330 BC, and after Alexander's death, much of the area previously ruled by the Cyrus and his successors was ruled by the Seleucid dynasty. [45] Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG) Rawson, Jessica (1999). "Design Systems in Early Chinese Art". Orientations: 52. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020 . Retrieved 18 October 2020.

In politics, the late Roman conception of the Empire as a universal state, headed by one supreme divinely appointed ruler, united with Christianity as a universal religion likewise headed by a supreme patriarch, proved very influential, even after the disappearance of imperial authority in the west. This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended through the entire civilized western world.

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The Classical Greek world was dominated throughout the 5th century BC by the major powers of Athens and Sparta. Through the Delian League, Athens was able to convert pan-hellenist sentiment and fear of the Persian threat into a powerful empire, and this, along with the conflict between Sparta and Athens culminating in the Peloponnesian War, was the major political development of the first part of the Classical period. [149] The period in Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great until the rise of the Roman empire and its conquest of Egypt in 30 BC is known as the Hellenistic period. [150] After Alexander's death, a series of wars between his successors eventually led to three large states being formed from parts of Alexander's conquests, each ruled by a dynasty founded by one of the successors. These were the Antigonids, the Selucids, and the Ptolemies. [151] These three kingdoms, along with smaller kingdoms, spread Greek culture and lifestyles into Asia and Egypt. These varying states eventually were conquered by Rome or the Parthian Empire. [152] Rome [ edit ] Roman Empire AD 117. The Senatorial provinces were acquired first under the Roman Republic and were under the Roman Senate's control; the Imperial provinces were controlled directly by the Roman emperor.

Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John; Davies, J.K.; etal., eds. (1992). "Preface". The Cambridge Ancient History Volume V: The Fifth Century B.C. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23347-7. Shaw, Thurstan (1978). Nigeria: Its Archaeology and Early History. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-02086-9. Wilson, Andrew (2008). "Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.285–318. ISBN 978-0-19-973485-6. Phillipson, David (2012). "Aksum". In Neil Asher Silberman (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (Seconded.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973921-9. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2022.

Other words from antiquity

Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half millennia. [63] It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3100 BC, traditionally under Menes. [66] The civilisation of ancient Egypt was characterised primarily by intensive agricultural use of the fertile Nile Valley; [67] the use of the Nile itself for transportation; [68] the development of writing systems – first hieroglyphs and then later hieratic and other derived scripts – and literature; [69] the organisation of collective projects such as the pyramids; [70] trade with surrounding regions; [71] and a polytheistic religious tradition that included elaborate funeral customs including mummification. [72] Overseeing these activities were a socio-political and economic elite [73] under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler from a succession of ruling dynasties. [74]